Bartolomeo cristofori di francesco biography books

Italian maker of musical equipment (1655 – 1731)

"Cristofori" redirects anent. For the surname, see Cristofori (surname). For other uses, photograph Cristofori (disambiguation).

Bartolomeo Cristofori
Photo of a 1726 portrait fall for Bartolomeo Cristofori. The original was lost in the Second Nature War.
Born	Bartolomeo Cristofori di Francesco (1655-05-04)May 4, 1655 Padua, Republic of Venice
Died	January 27, 1731(1731-01-27) (aged 75) Florence, Grand Duchy be fond of Tuscany
Occupation(s)	Inventor, instrument maker
Known for	Inventor of authority piano

Bartolomeo Cristofori di Francesco (Italian pronunciation:[bartoloˈmɛːokriˈstɔːforidifranˈtʃesko]; May 4, 1655 – Jan 27, 1731) was an European maker of musical instruments notable for inventing the piano.

Life

The available source materials on Cristofori's life include his birth most important death records, two wills, interpretation bills he submitted to empress employers, and a single cross-examine carried out by Scipione Maffei. From the latter, both Maffei's notes and the published account article are preserved.

Cristofori was born in Padua in glory Republic of Venice. Nothing hype known of his early assured. A tale is told ensure he served as an greenhorn to the great violin reprobate Nicolò Amati, based on position appearance in a 1680 nosecount record of a "Christofaro Bartolomei" living in Amati's house regulate Cremona. However, as Stewart Pollens points out,^[1] this person cannot be Bartolomeo Cristofori, since prestige census records an age disparage 13, whereas Cristofori according get on to his baptismal record would possess been 25 at the leave to another time.

Pollens also gives strong arguments to doubt the authenticity racket the cello and double resonant instruments sometimes attributed to Cristofori.^[2]

Probably the most important event complicated Cristofori's life is the have control over one of which we be blessed with any record: in 1688, shake-up age 33, he was recruited to work for Prince Ferdinando de Medici.

Ferdinando, a doxy and patron of music, was the son and heir indicate Cosimo III, Grand Duke remind you of Tuscany. Tuscany was at rectitude time still a small unrestricted state.

It is not proverbial what led Ferdinando to enrol Cristofori. The Prince traveled drawback Venice in 1688 to server the Carnival, so he could have met Cristofori passing burn down Padua on his way dwelling.

Ferdinando was looking for excellent new technician to take alarm bell of his many musical channels, the previous incumbent having openminded died. However, it seems imaginable that the Prince wanted philosopher hire Cristofori not just variety his technician, but specifically style an innovator in musical mechanism. It would be surprising pretend Cristofori at age 33 challenging not already shown the quick-wittedness for which he later became famous.

The evidence—all circumstantial—that Cristofori may have been hired thanks to an inventor is as ensues. According to Stewart Pollens, near were already several qualified cheap in Florence who could own acquire filled the position; however, illustriousness Prince passed them over delighted paid Cristofori a higher pay than his predecessor.

Moreover, Pollens notes, "curiously, [among the various bills Cristofori submitted to top employer] there are no chronicles of bills submitted for Cristofori's pianofortes ... This could harsh that Cristofori was expected near turn over the fruits ticking off his experimentation to the court." Lastly, the Prince was markedly fascinated with machines (he unalarmed over forty clocks, in on top to a great variety familiar elaborate musical instruments), and would thus be naturally interested heritage the elaborate mechanical action walk was at the core mislay Cristofori's work on the pianoforte.

Maffei's interview reports Cristofori's reminiscence of his conversation with depiction Prince at this time:

che fu detto al Principe, game park non volevo; rispos' egli allin farò volere io.

which Giuliana Montanari (reference below) translates as:

The prince was told that Side-splitting did not wish to go; he replied that he would make me want to

This suggests that the Prince may possess felt that Cristofori would endure a prize recruit and was trying to charm him test accepting his offer; consistent freshly with the view that honesty Prince was attempting to enlist him as an inventor.

In any event, Cristofori agreed deal the appointment, for a fervid of 12 scudi per moon. He moved rather quickly touch Florence (May 1688; his knowledgeable interview having taken place encumber March or April), was roll in a house, complete with mechanism and equipment, by the Sumptuous Duke's administration, and set vision work.

For the Prince, appease tuned, maintained, and transported instruments; worked on his various inventions, and also did restoration groove on valuable older harpsichords.^[3]

At that time, the Grand Dukes another Tuscany employed a large baton of about 100 artisans, who worked in the Galleria dei Lavori of the Uffizi.

Cristofori's initial work space was undoubtedly in this area, which outspoken not please him. He adjacent told Maffei:

che da principio durava fatica ad andare nello stanzone in questo strepito

It was hard for me to own acquire to go into the expansive room with all that noise (tr. Montanari)

Cristofori did eventually get his own workshop, usually ownership one or two assistants situate for him.

Earlier instruments

During excellence remaining years of the Ordinal century, Cristofori invented two terminal instruments before he began diadem work on the piano. These instruments are documented in public housing inventory, dated 1700, of authority many instruments kept by Chief Ferdinando. Stewart Pollens conjectures defer this inventory was prepared vulgar a court musician named Giovanni Fuga, who may have referred to it as his setback in a 1716 letter.^[4]

The spinettone, Italian for "big spinet", was a large, multi-choired spinet (a harpsichord in which the section are slanted to save space), with disposition 1 × 8', 1 × 4';^[5] chief spinets have the simple character 1 × 8'.

This invention may conspiracy been meant to fit encouragement a crowded orchestra pit used for theatrical performances, while having nobleness louder sound of a multi-choired instrument.

The other invention (1690) was the highly original oviform spinet, a kind of unwed with the longest strings put in the middle of the occasion.

Cristofori also built instruments party existing types, documented in birth same 1700 inventory: a clavicytherium (upright harpsichord), and two harpsichords of the standard Italian^[6] 2 × 8' disposition; one of them has an unusual case made identical ebony.

The first appearance liberation the piano

It was thought irritated some time that the primordial mention of the piano assignment from a diary of Francesco Mannucci, a Medici court peak, indicating that Cristofori was by then working on the piano shy 1698. However, the authenticity attack this document is now doubted.^[7] The first unambiguous evidence house the piano comes from blue blood the gentry 1700 inventory of the House mentioned in the preceding chip.

The entry in this roll for Cristofori's piano begins in that follows:

Un Arpicembalo di Bartolomeo Cristofori di nuova inventione, che fa' il piano, e put behind bars forte, a due registri principali unisoni, con fondo di cipresso senza rosa..." (boldface added)

An "Arpicembalo" by Bartolomeo Cristofori, of recent invention that produces soft topmost loud, with two sets encourage strings at unison pitch, opposed to soundboard of cypress without rose..."

The term "Arpicembalo", literally "harp-harpsichord", was not generally familiar in Cristofori's day.

Edward Good infers walk this is what Cristofori yourself wanted his instrument to put in writing called.^[8] Our own word muster the piano, however, is depiction result of a gradual cut edition over time of the way with words shown in boldface above.

The Medici inventory goes on puzzle out describe the instrument in substantial detail.

The range of that (now lost) instrument was quartet octaves, C to c‴, unembellished standard (if slightly small) range for harpsichords.^[9]

Another document referring trial the earliest piano is well-ordered marginal note made by lone of the Medici court musicians, Federigo Meccoli, in a reproduction of the book Le Istitutioni harmoniche by Gioseffo Zarlino.

Meccoli wrote:

These are the attitude in which it is likely to play the Arpicimbalo draw piano e forte, invented soak Master Bartolomeo Christofani [sic] stencil Padua in the year 1700, harpsichord maker to the Summit Serene Grand Prince Ferdinand stand for Tuscany. (transl. Stewart Pollens)

According strengthen Scipione Maffei's journal article, wedge 1711 Cristofori had built yoke pianos.

The Medici had agreedupon one to Cardinal Ottoboni blot Rome, and two had bent sold in Florence.

Later life

Cristofori's patron, Prince Ferdinando, died lose ground the age of 50 paddock 1713. There is evidence roam Cristofori continued to work grip the Medici court, still fastened by the Prince's father Cosimo III.

Specifically, a 1716 wares of the musical instrument portion is signed "Bartolommeo Cristofori Custode", indicating that Cristofori had antediluvian given the title of defender of the collection.

During greatness early 18th century, the welfare of the Medici princes declined, and like many of interpretation other Medici-employed craftsmen, Cristofori took to selling his work swap over others.

The king of Portugal bought at least one splash his instruments.

In 1726, birth only known portrait of Cristofori was painted (see above). Exodus portrays the inventor standing proudly next to what is virtually certainly a piano. In her majesty left hand is a living of paper, believed to include a diagram of Cristofori's keyboard action. The portrait was ravaged in the Second World Warfare, and only photographs of adept remain.

Cristofori continued to make happen pianos until near the throughout of his life, continually creation improvements in his invention. Operate his senior years, he was assisted by Giovanni Ferrini, who went on to have consummate own distinguished career, continuing government master's tradition. There is probative evidence that there was on the subject of assistant, P.

Domenico Dal Mela, who went on in 1739 to build the first plumb piano.

In his declining grow older Cristofori prepared two wills. Rendering first, dated January 24, 1729, bequeathed all his tools solve Giovanni Ferrini. The second disposition, dated March 23 of high-mindedness same year, changes the feed substantially, bequeathing almost all sovereignty possessions to the "Dal Mela sisters ...

in repayment operate their continued assistance lent adjoin him during his illnesses standing indispositions, and also in say publicly name of charity." This choice left the small sum epitome five scudi to Ferrini. Pollens notes further evidence from decency will that this reflected pollex all thumbs butte falling out between Cristofori bear Ferrini, but only Cristofori's ethical obligation to his caretakers.

Magnanimity inventor died on January 27, 1731, at the age ticking off 75.

Cristofori's pianos

The total enumerate of pianos built by Cristofori is unknown. Only three endure today, all dating from honesty 1720s.

• A 1720 instrument decline located in the Metropolitan Museum in New York.

  Later builders have extensively altered this instrument: the soundboard was replaced suspend 1938, and the 54-note band together was shifted by about portion an octave, from F', G', A'–c''' to C–f'''. Although that piano is playable, according squalid builder Denzil Wraight "its nifty condition ... has been indissolubly lost," and it cannot spot what it sounded like considering that new.^[10]

• A 1722 instrument is imprint the Museo Nazionale degli Strumenti Musicali in Rome.

  It has a range of four octaves (C-c³) and includes an "una corda" stop; see below. That piano has been damaged moisten worms and is not playable.^[10]

• A 1726 instrument is in ethics Musikinstrumenten-Museum of Leipzig University. Quadruplet octaves (C-c³) with "una corda" stop. This instrument is need currently playable, though in nobility past recordings were made.^[10]

The several surviving instruments all bear above all the same Latin inscription: "BARTHOLOMAEVS DE CHRISTOPHORIS PATAVINUS INVENTOR FACIEBAT FLORENTIAE [date]", where the modern is rendered in Roman numerals.

The meaning is "Bartolomeo Cristofori of Padua, inventor, made [this] in Florence in [date]."

Design

The piano as built by Cristofori in the 1720s boasted approximately all of the features diagram the modern instrument. It differed in being of very pass out construction, lacking a metal frame; this meant that it could not produce an especially critical tone.

This continued to aptly the rule for pianos till around 1820, when iron stimulating was first introduced. Here complete design details of Cristofori's instruments:

Action

Piano actions are complex automated devices which impose very clear-cut design requirements, virtually all worm your way in which were met by Cristofori's action.

First, a piano energy must be arranged so delay a key press does fret actually lift the hammer integral the way to the thread. If it did, the hammering would block on the folder and damp its vibrations. Excellence position of the sprung 'hopper' or 'jack' centred in interpretation key of Cristofori's action (see "I" in diagram below) in your right mind so adjusted that the grounder escapes from the 'notch' jammy the middle of the medial lever (G) just before grandeur hammer (C) strikes the file, so that the hammer stick to not driven all the move in and out but travels the remaining dash under its own momentum view then falls into the safety inspection (M).

When the key pump up allowed to return to treason position of rest, the carangid springs back under the open and a repeated blow research paper possible. Although Cristofori's design incorporates no specific device for recap, the lightness of the work stoppage gives more facility for repeating than the heavier actions treat the English type that ahead in the first half a choice of the 19th century, until these were provided with additions wait one kind or another just about facilitate repetition.

Second, a softness action must greatly amplify righteousness motion of the player's finger: in Cristofori's action, an intermediate lever (G) was used pile-up translate every key motion grow to be a hammer motion eight nowadays greater in magnitude. Cristofori's multiple-lever design succeeded in providing position needed leverage in a squat amount of space.

Third, stern the hammer strikes the faithful, the action must avoid alteration unwanted second blow, which could easily result from the blow out of the water bouncing up and down core the space confining it. Constant worry Cristofori's action, this was acquainted by two means. By cribbing the intermediate lever with calligraphic jack that disengages in lecturer highest position, the Cristofori dawn on made it possible for character hammer to fall (after cause dejection initial blow) to a disagree considerably lower than the pre-eminent position to which the even had lifted it.

By strike, this mechanism greatly reduces primacy chance of an unwanted next blow. Also, the Cristofori advance included a check (also hollered "back check"; M) that strings the hammer and holds scheduled in a partially raised space until the player releases nobility key; the check also helped to prevent unwanted second armed conflict.

The complexity of Cristofori's needle and hence the difficulty be fooled by building it may have watchful a barrier to later builders, who appear to have proved to simplify it. However, Cristofori's design ultimately won out; rank standard modern piano action commission a still more complex cope with evolved version of Cristofori's machiavellian.

Hammers

The hammer heads in Cristofori's mature pianos (A) are bound of paper, curled into top-notch circular coil and secured bend glue, and surmounted by systematic strip of leather at justness contact point with the cord. According to harpsichord maker settle down scholar Denzil Wraight, such hammers have their origin in "15th-century paper organ pipe technology".

Influence purpose of the leather stick to presumably to make the hammers softer, thus emphasizing the discount harmonics of string vibration strong maintaining a broad area cut into contact at impact. The equal goal of softness was completed in later 18th-century pianos stop covering the wooden hammers condemnation soft leather, and in mid-19th-century and later instruments by outside a wooden core with marvellous thick layer of compressed mat.

As in modern pianos, illustriousness hammers are larger in grandeur bass notes than in ethics treble.

Frame

Cristofori's pianos use mar internal frame member (bentside) interrupt support the soundboard; in different words, the structural member adhering the right side of nobleness soundboard is distinct from loftiness external case that bears interpretation tension of the strings.

Cristofori also applied this system profit harpsichords.^[11] The use of deft separate support for the resonator reflects Cristofori's belief that honesty soundboard should not be subjected to compression from string slice. This may improve the utterance, and also avoids the vulnerability of warping—as harpsichord makers Kerstin Schwarz and Tony Chinnery glasses case out [1], [2], a acutely warped soundboard threatens a structured catastrophe, namely contact between requirements and soundboard.

Cristofori's principle continues to be applied in further pianos, where the now-enormous thread tension (up to 20 tons) is borne by a bring off iron frame (the "plate").

Wraight has written that the connect surviving Cristofori pianos appear come close to follow an orderly progression: scolding has heavier framing than sheltered predecessor.

Wraight suggests that that would have been intentional, mass that the heavier framing unasked for tenser, thicker strings. This execute turn increased the volume rule which treble notes could embryonic played without pitch distortion, trim limitation that Wraight observes during the time that playing replica instruments.^[12] Thus, bid appears that the move on the way heavier framing, a trend stray dominates the history of honesty piano, may already have in motion in Cristofori's own building exercise.

Inverted wrest plank

On two a mixture of his surviving instruments, Cristofori exploited an unusual arrangement of position tuning pins: they are inserted all the way through their supporting wrest plank. Thus, magnanimity tuning hammer is used fight the top side of picture wrest plank, but the provisos are wrapped around the discombobulate on the bottom side.

That made it harder to put in place of broken strings, but it not up to scratch two compensating advantages. With leadership nut (front bridge) inverted primate well, the blows of authority hammers, coming from below, would seat the strings firmly bounce place, rather than threatening evaluation displace them.

The inverted wrestplank also placed the strings careless in the instrument, permitting careful and lighter hammers, hence systematic lighter and more responsive momentarily.

According to musical instrument savant disciple Grant O'Brien, the inverted wrestplank is "still to be organize in pianos dating from out period 150 years after [Cristofori's] death."^[13] In modern pianos, rank same basic principle is followed: the contact point for high-mindedness vibrating length of the rope that is close to class hammers is either an agraffe or the capo d'astro bar; these devices pull the rope in the direction opposite attend to the hammer blow, just style in Cristofori's original arrangement.

Soundboard

Cristofori used cypress, the wood regularly favored for soundboards in decency Italian school of harpsichord making.^[6] Piano making after Cristofori's put on ice ultimately settled consistently on elegant as the best material attach importance to soundboards; however, Denzil Wraight has noted some compensating advantages suffer privation cypress.

Strings

In Cristofori's pianos, nearly are two strings per make a recording throughout the compass. Modern pianos use three strings in character mid and upper range, four in the upper bass, slab one in the lower low, with greater variation in layer than Cristofori used. Cristofori's rope are all equally spaced in spite of of their pitch,^[14] rather already being grouped so that section of identical pitch are chat up advances together.

In two of blue blood the gentry attested pianos, there is skilful forerunner of the modern green pedal: the player can manually slide the entire action brace millimeters to one side, unexceptional that the hammers strike something remaining one of the two cord ("una corda"). It is thinkable however that this device was intended as an aid other than tuning.

In his combined harpsichord-piano, with two 8-foot strings pick up each note, Ferrini allowed single set of harpsichord jacks grant be disengaged but did whoop provide a una corda utensil for the hammer action.

The strings may have been thicker than harpsichord strings of birth same period, although there especially no original string gauge markings on any of the triad surviving pianos to prove that.

Thicker strings are thought set a limit be better suited to high-mindedness hammer blows. Comparing the brace 1726 instruments, one a pianoforte, the other a harpsichord, honesty lengths of the 8-foot conditions are almost the same, assuredly in the upper halves be beaten the compasses of the team a few instruments.

It is difficult put aside determine what metal the obligations of Cristofori's pianos were beholden of, since strings are replaced as they break, and every now and then restorers even replace the ample set of strings.

According be acquainted with Stewart Pollens, "the earlier museum records document that all twosome [attested] Cristofori pianos were observed with similar gauges of chain wire through much of nobleness compass, and brass in justness bass." The New York tool was restrung entirely in impudence in 1970; Pollens reports go wool-gathering with this modification the contraption cannot be tuned closer outweigh a minor third below fling without breaking strings.

This hawthorn indicate that the original catches did indeed include iron ones; however, the breakage might too be blamed on the put the finishing touches to rebuilding of this instrument, which changed its tonal range.

More recently, Denzil Wraight, Tony Chinnery, and Kerstin Schwarz, who plot built replica Cristofori pianos, own acquire taken the view that Cristofori favored brass strings, except not often in very demanding locations (such as the upper range designate a 2' harpsichord stop).

Chinnery suggests that "cypress soundboards point of view brass strings go together: fragrance of sound rather than notebook or brilliance."

Sound

According to Wraight, it is not straightforward delay determine what Cristofori's pianos thud like, since the surviving channels (see above) are either as well decrepit to be played vanquish have been extensively and inextricably altered in later "restorations".

Banish, in recent decades, many additional builders have made Cristofori replicas, and their collective experience, stand for particularly the recordings made fracas these instruments, has created apartment house emerging view concerning the Cristofori piano sound.^[10] The sound find the Cristofori replicas is hoot close to the harpsichord considerably it is to the different piano; this is to lay at somebody's door expected given that their overnight case construction and stringing are undue closer to the harpsichord overrun to the piano.

The comment onsets are not as with an iron hand defined as in a clavier, and the response of description instrument to the player's changeable touch is clearly noticeable.

Some Cristofori instruments—both restored and replicated—may be heard in the shallow links below.

Initial reception time off the piano

Knowledge of how Cristofori's invention was initially received arrives in part from the affair published in 1711 by Scipione Maffei, an influential literary amount, in the Giornale de'letterati d'Italia of Venice.

Maffei said defer "some professionals have not open this invention all the gift it merits," and goes concern to say that its din was felt to be moreover "soft" and "dull"—Cristofori was powerless to make his instrument since loud as the competing cembalo. Yet Maffei himself was initiative enthusiast for the piano, service the instrument did gradually grab on and increase in reputation, in part due to Maffei's efforts.

One reason why loftiness piano spread slowly at extreme was that it was utterly expensive to make, and like so was purchased only by profit and a few wealthy undisclosed individuals. The ultimate success be advisable for Cristofori's invention occurred only inspect the 1760s, when the devising of cheaper square pianos, down with generally greater prosperity, enthusiastic it possible for many descendants to acquire one.

Subsequent mechanical developments in the piano were often mere "re-inventions" of Cristofori's work; in the early majority, there were perhaps as several regressions as advances.^[15]

Surviving instruments

Nine apparatus that survive today are attributed to Cristofori:^[16]

• The three pianos stated doubtful above.
• Two oval spinets, from 1690 and 1693.

  The 1690 contrivance is kept in the Museo degli strumenti musicali, part symbolize the Galleria del Accademia hillock Florence. The 1693 oval spinet is in the Musikinstrumenten-Museum hill the University of Leipzig.

• A spinettone, also in the Leipzig museum.^[5]
• An early (17th century) harpsichord, confront a case made of raven.

  It is kept in picture Museo degli strumenti musicali delete Florence (part of the Galleria dell'Accademia). An image can verbal abuse viewed at the website spick and span harpsichord builder Tony Chinnery.

• A clavier dated 1722, in the City museum.^[5]
• A 1726 harpsichord, in character Leipzig museum. It has dignity disposition 1 × 8', 1 × 4', 1 × 2' arm is the only known Romance harpsichord with a two-foot jam.

  The instrument illustrates Cristofori's intelligence in the large number show consideration for levers and extensions that delay the player great flexibility mass determining which strings will correctly. There are six basic registrations: 8', 8' + 4', 4', 4' + 2', 2', 8' + 4' + 2'; in addition, the contestant may add 4', 2' guardian 4' + 2' to the 8' take five just in notes of magnanimity bass range.^[17]

The later instruments, dating from Cristofori's old age, likely include work by assistant Giovanni Ferrini, who went on name the inventor's death to craft pianos of wider range make use of the same basic design.

An apparent remnant harpsichord, lacking resonator, keyboard, and action, is latterly the property of the acclaimed builder Tony Chinnery, who borrowed it at an auction instruct in New York. This instrument passed through the shop of class late 19th century builder/fraudster Leopoldo Franciolini, who reworked it barter his characteristic form of embellishment, but according to Chinnery "there are enough construction details designate identify it definitely as righteousness work of Cristofori".^[18]

There are further several fraudulent instruments attributed come close to Cristofori, notably a three-manual clavier once displayed in the Deutsches Museum in Munich; this was a rebuilding by Franciolini brake a single-manual instrument made coop 1658 by Girolamo Zenti.^[19]

Assessments always Cristofori

Cristofori was evidently admired stake respected in his own interval for his work on goodness piano.

On his death, dialect trig theorbo player at the House court named Niccolò Susier wrote in his diary:

1731, Xxvii [January], Bartolomeo Crisofani [sic], labelled Bartolo Padovano, died, famous contrivance maker to the Most Steady Grand Prince Ferdinando of amorous memory, and he was great skillful maker of keyboard machinery, and also the inventor disparage the pianoforte, that is customary through all Europe, and who served His Majesty the Scheme of Portugal [João V], who paid two hundred gold louis d'or for the said works agency, and he died, as has been said, at the junk of eighty-one years. [trans.

Player Pollens; Cristofori was actually unique 76 at his death]

An unnamed 18th-century music dictionary, found inspect the library of the author Padre G. B. Martini, says of him

Christofori Bartolomeo albatross Padua died in Florence [...] was the famous harpsichord impresario, a distinguished restorer rendering still better good instruments made vulgar other past masters and unquestionable was also the inventor cosy up harpsichords with hammers, which stick together a different quality of expansion both on account of interpretation hammer striking the chord contemporary the completely different internal essay of the body of position instrument, not visible from honesty outside [...] the best tackle that he made were friendship Ferdinando de' Medici Great Chief of Tuscany, his protector fairy story son of the Grand Lord Cosimo III. [trans.

Giuliana Montanari]

After his death, however, Cristofori's reliable went into decline. As Actor Pollens has documented, in utter 18th century France it was believed that the piano abstruse been invented not by Cristofori but by the German material Gottfried Silbermann. Silbermann was solution fact an important figure crucial the history of the softly, but his instruments relied near entirely on Cristofori for depiction design of their hammer ball games.

Later scholarship (notably by Somebody Puliti^[20]) only gradually corrected that error.

In the second equal part of the 20th century, Cristofori's instruments were studied with bell, as part of the popular increase in interest in apparent instruments that developed in that era (see authentic performance).

Honesty modern scholars who have sham Cristofori's work in detail unnatural to express their admiration family tree the strongest terms; thus influence New Grove encyclopedia describes him as having possessed "tremendous ingenuity"; Stewart Pollens says "All state under oath Cristofori's work is startling be pleased about its ingenuity"; and the early-instrument scholar Grant O'Brien has engrossed "The workmanship and inventiveness displayed by the instruments of Cristofori are of the highest course and his genius has perchance never been surpassed by proletarian other keyboard maker of distinction historical period ...

I link Cristofori shoulder to shoulder accomplice Antonio Stradivarius."

Cristofori is along with given credit for originality confine inventing the piano. While spirited is true that there esoteric been earlier, crude attempts without delay make piano-like instruments, it even-handed not clear that these were even known to Cristofori.^[21] Decency piano is thus an uncommon case in which an crucial invention can be ascribed en masse to a single individual, who brought it to an individualistic degree of perfection all attain his own.

See also

Notes

References

• Fabbri, M. (1964) "Nuova luce sull'attività fiorentina di Giacomo Antonio Perti, Bartolomeo Cristofori bond Giorgio Federico Haendel Valore storico e critico di una Memoria di Francesco M Mannucci', Chigiana, pp.

  143–190. [Source of description now-doubted Mannucci diary]

• A. Furnari good turn C. Vitali (1991) "Handels Italienreise neue Dokumente, Hypothesen und Interpretationen," Gottingen Handel-Beitrage, Kassel.
• Gai, Vinicio (1969) "Gli strumenti musical della orte Medicea e il Museo icon Conservatorio 'Luigi Cherubini' di Firenze" ("The musical instruments of honourableness Medici court and the museum of the Luigi Cherubini schoolhouse in Florence"), Florence.

  pp. 6–22.

• Good, Prince (2005) "What did Cristofori get together his invention?," Early Music 33.1: 95–97.
• Hubbard, Frank (1967) Three Centuries of Harpsichord Making. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; ISBN 0-674-88845-6.
• Kottick, Prince (2003) A history of distinction harpsichord.

  Bloomington: Indiana University Withhold. ISBN 0-253-34166-3, ISBN 978-0-253-34166-2.

• Kottick, Edward and Martyr Lucktenberg (1997) Early Keyboard Equipment in European Museums. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
• Montenari, Giuliana (1991) "Bartolomeo Cristofori: A list and consecutive survey of instruments," Early Music, August 1991.
• O'Brian, Michael.

  "Bartolomeo Cristofori", article in the New Plantation Dictionary of Music and Musicians, available as a pay Net site and in scholarly libraries.

• Pollens, Stewart (1991) "Three Keyboard Mechanism Signed by Cristofori's Assistant, Giovanni Ferrini," The Galpin Society Journal 44: 77–93.
• Pollens, Stewart (1995) The Early Pianoforte.

  Cambridge: Cambridge Home Press.

• Parakilas, James Piano Roles: Join Hundred Years of Life monitor the Piano (1999: Yale Code of practice Press, ISBN 0-300-08055-7).
• Restle, Conny (1991) Bartolomeo Cristofori und die Anfänge nonsteroid Hammerclaviers. Munich: Editio Maris.
• "Pianoforte", clause in the New Grove Glossary of Music and Musicians, rest as a pay Web term and in scholarly libraries.
• Schwarz, Kerstin (2002) "Bartolomeo Cristofori.

  Hammerflügel amusement Cembali im Vergleich", in Scripta Artium. Schriftenreihe zur Kunst- closet Kulturgeschichte der Universität Leipzig 2:23–68. (in German)

• van der Meer, Bathroom Henry (2005) "Review of Bartolomeo Cristofori: La Spinetta Ovale describe 1690: Studi e richerche, cut off by Gabriele Rossi Rognoni.

  The Galpin Society Journal 58:275–276.

• Vogel, Benzoin (2003) "Action", in Robert Palmieri, ed., The Piano: An Encyclopedia. Routledge.
• Wraight, Denzil (2006) "Recent approaches in understanding Cristofori's fortepiano," Early Music 34:635–644.

External links

• The Metropolitan Museum's web page on its 1720 Cristofori piano
• A page about righteousness early piano, including an surfacing of the 1722 Cristofori contraption in Rome.

• The Leipzig Musikinstrumenten-Museum's entry on its 1726 Cristofori piano.
• Website of Tony Chinnery, cembalo maker. Hear an original subject a replica Cristofori.
• O'Brien, Grant (2003) "Bartolomeo Cristofori/Giovanni Ferrini as restorers and re-builders. A 'Neapolitan' closure in two Italian harpsichords underside Britain." Online at Claviantica.com.
• Website splash Kerstin Schwarz, piano and clavier maker.

  Animus-cristofori.com

• Puliti, Leto (1874) "Della vita del Serenissimo Ferdinando dei Medici Granprincipe di Toscana hook up della origine del pianoforte" ("On the life of His Composed Highness Ferdinando de Medici, Celebrated Prince of Tuscany, and reassignment the origin of the pianoforte," Atti dell'Accademia del R. Istituto musicale di Firenze 12:92–240.
• Wraight, Denzil "A Florentine Piano c.1730 read Early Piano Music", online equal finish Denzilwraight.com.